If you have been reading about Epithalamin and want a single page that covers the useful parts, this is it: definitions, context, how it is studied, and the questions that come up repeatedly.
Updated 2026-02-09. Numbers and descriptions here follow the published literature rather than marketing material.
Material supplied for laboratory use is normally a lyophilised white to off-white powder that dissolves readily in water and in isotonic saline. Lyophilised cakes are hygroscopic and should be equilibrated to room temperature before opening to limit condensation on the solid. Solutions are typically prepared at milligram-per-millilitre concentrations and divided into single-use aliquots, because repeated freeze–thaw cycles degrade short peptides. Aqueous solutions are far less stable than the dry powder, and identity is usually verified by mass spectrometry alongside purity estimation from reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography.
Epitalon is a synthetic linear tetrapeptide with the sequence alanine–glutamate–aspartate–glycine, abbreviated AEDG. Its molecular formula is C14H22N4O9 and the calculated mass is approximately 390.35 g/mol. The compound is made by solid-phase peptide synthesis rather than extracted from tissue, although early work described it as a short fragment of a peptide fraction obtained from bovine pineal extract. In the research literature the spelling epitalon and the variant epithalone both appear, while AEDG is the standard code used in peptide nomenclature.
Verification of research-grade material involves comparing a supplier chromatogram against an in-house reference, checking the observed mass against the calculated value, and where possible confirming residue order by tandem mass spectrometry or enzymatic peptide mapping. Purity claims should be read alongside the method used to obtain them, because detection wavelength and integration settings alter the result. Batch-specific data, rather than a generic grade statement, is the informative part of a certificate.
Identity and purity of epitalon samples are normally established by reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography with ultraviolet detection near 214 nanometres, combined with mass spectrometry. The mass spectrum confirms the expected molecular ion and can reveal truncated or oxidised by-products. Amino acid analysis after acid hydrolysis verifies that the four residues are present in the expected ratio. Certificates typically report a purity figure taken from chromatographic peak area, expressed as a percentage of total integrated signal.
Lyophilised epitalon is generally held at minus twenty degrees Celsius in a sealed container kept dry and dark. Cooler conditions are sometimes recommended for long-term archives. The solid takes up moisture readily enough that repeated opening of a vial introduces water, so dividing a batch into smaller portions before storage lowers degradation risk. Aqueous solutions are less durable than the dry powder and are usually prepared shortly before use, then kept cold and shielded from light to slow hydrolysis and oxidation.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Amino acid sequence | Ala-Glu-Asp-Gly | Linear tetrapeptide, also written AEDG |
| Molecular mass | About 390.35 g/mol | Value calculated from the sequence |
| Appearance | White to off-white powder | Lyophilised material forms a loose cake |
| Solubility | Freely soluble in water | Also dissolves in isotonic saline |
| Storage | -20 °C, desiccated | Aliquot solutions to avoid freeze–thaw cycling |
Discussions in the literature often conflate three distinct entities: the pineal extract epithalamin, the isolated tetrapeptide AEDG, and commercial preparations sold under similar names. Reviews citing older Russian-language studies sometimes omit detail on purity, route of administration and control groups, which makes cross-study comparison difficult. Researchers working with the compound generally note the need for independent replication, standardized enzyme assays, and clearer reporting of peptide identity. These caveats are relevant when weighing claims that appear in secondary sources rather than in primary reports.
（TG:@pojiaai）Epitalon is a synthetic linear tetrapeptide with the sequence alanine-glutamate-aspartate-glycine, abbreviated AEDG. It emerged from work on epithalamin, a peptide fraction prepared from bovine pineal tissue, and was designed as a short, chemically defined analogue of that extract. Early publications came mainly from Russian laboratories studying pineal peptides and aging-related endpoints. The compound appears in the literature under several spellings, including epithalon and epithalone, which complicates systematic searching. Its small size makes solid-phase assembly and routine analytical characterization straightforward.
Chemically, the molecule consists of four amino acid residues joined by three peptide bonds, with a free N-terminal amino group and a free C-terminal carboxyl group. Its molecular formula is C14H22N4O9, and its monoisotopic mass is approximately 390 daltons. The acidic glutamate and aspartate side chains give the peptide a net negative charge near neutral pH, a property that shapes its chromatographic behaviour and solubility profile. No disulfide bridges or other post-translational modifications are present, so the primary sequence alone defines the structure.
Freeze-dried epitalon is normally kept at minus twenty degrees Celsius in a sealed, desiccated container, protected from light. Short excursions at ambient temperature during shipping are generally tolerated, but repeated warming and cooling cycles encourage moisture uptake, which shortens shelf life. Once dissolved, the peptide is far less stable than the solid: aqueous solutions are subject to hydrolysis and to deamidation at the aspartate and glutamate residues. Working solutions are therefore held refrigerated and used within days, and repeated freezing and thawing of the same vial is best avoided.
Identity and purity are checked by reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography, usually with ultraviolet detection near 214 nanometres, where the peptide bond absorbs. Mass spectrometry confirms the expected mass and reveals whether truncation products or adducts are present. Acid hydrolysis followed by amino acid analysis gives the residue ratio, which should approximate one alanine, one glutamate, one aspartate and one glycine. Counter-ions such as acetate or trifluoroacetate remain in the dried product and lower net peptide content, so a stated purity figure on a label does not by itself describe how much peptide a vial holds.
Proposed mechanisms centre on cell-culture observations rather than a defined receptor interaction. Several reports describe increased expression of the telomerase catalytic subunit after exposure of cultured human cells, and the authors attributed the effect to short peptide fragments entering the nucleus and influencing gene transcription. No receptor for the tetrapeptide has been identified, and the free peptide is expected to be degraded rapidly by plasma peptidases. Whether any measurable fraction reaches intact tissues after administration remains an unresolved question rather than an established finding.
The published literature is dominated by a small number of research groups, much of it in Russian-language journals, and independent replication outside those groups is limited. Studies are typically small, use cultured cells or rodent models, and report endpoints that differ between papers, which makes comparison difficult. Large randomised human trials have not appeared in the indexed literature. Questions about absorption, distribution and clearance are therefore still treated as open in reviews that mention the compound.
Epitalon is a synthetic tetrapeptide with the sequence alanine–glutamate–aspartate–glycine, commonly abbreviated AEDG. Its design traces to epithalamin, a peptide fraction prepared from bovine pineal gland extracts that researchers in Saint Petersburg began investigating in the 1970s. The compound has a molecular formula of C14H22N4O9 and a nominal molecular mass near 390 daltons. It holds no approved drug status in the United States or the European Union, and material sold under this name is generally offered as a research chemical rather than a finished pharmaceutical product.
=== Calculations === Using the known temperature of the sample, the bottle volume, the concentrations of gas in the headspace (as determined by GC), and Henry's law constant, the concentration of the original water sample is calculated. Total gas concentration (TC) in the original water sample is calculated by determining the concentration of headspace and converting this to the partial pressure and then solving for the aqueous concentration which partitioned in the gas phase (CAH) and the concentration remaining in the aqueous phase (CA). The total concentration of gas in original sample (TC) is the sum of the concentration partitioned in the gas phase (CAH) and the concentration remaining in the aqueous phase (CA):
== Medical uses == EMP is indicated, in the United States, for the palliative treatment of metastatic and/or progressive prostate cancer, whereas in the United Kingdom it is indicated for the treatment of unresponsive or relapsing prostate cancer. The medication is usually reserved for use in hormone-refractory cases of prostate cancer, although it has been used as a first-line monotherapy as well. Response rates with EMP in prostate cancer are said to be equivalent to conventional high-dose estrogen therapy. Due to its relatively severe side effects and toxicity, EMP has rarely been used in the treatment of prostate cancer. This is especially true in Western countries today. As a result, and also due to the scarce side effects of gonadotropin-releasing hormone modulators (GnRH modulators) like leuprorelin, EMP was almost abandoned. However, encouraging clinical research findings resulted in renewed interest of EMP for the treatment of prostate cancer. EMP has been used at doses of 140 to 1,400 mg/day orally in the treatment of prostate cancer. However, oral EMP is most commonly used at a dose of 560 to 640 mg/day (280–320 mg twice daily). The recommended dosage of oral EMP in the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) label for Emcyt is 14 mg per kg of body weight (i.e., one 140 mg oral capsule for each 10 kg or 22 lbs of body weight) given in 3 or 4 divided doses per day. The label states that most patients in studies of oral EMP in the United States have received 10 to 16 mg per kg per day. This would be about 900 to 1,440 mg/day for a 90-kg or 200-lb man.
Alcohols, including ethanol and 2-propanol/isopropanol are sometimes referred to as surgical spirit. They are used to disinfect the skin before injections, among other uses. Diguanides including chlorhexidine gluconate, a bacteriocidal antiseptic which (with an alcoholic solvent) is considered a safe and effective antiseptic for reducing the risk of infection after clean surgery, including tourniquet-controlled upper limb surgery. It is also used in mouthwashes to treat inflammation of the gums (gingivitis). Polyhexanide (polyhexamethylene biguanide, PHMB) is an antimicrobial compound suitable for clinical use in critically colonized or infected acute and chronic wounds. The physicochemical action on the bacterial envelope prevents or impedes the development of resistant bacterial strains. Iodine, especially in the form of povidone-iodine, is widely used because it is well tolerated; does not negatively affect wound healing; leaves a deposit of active iodine, thereby creating the so-called "remnant", or persistent effect; and has wide scope of antimicrobial activity. The traditional iodine antiseptic is an alcohol solution (called tincture of iodine) or as Lugol's iodine solution. Some studies do not recommend disinfecting minor wounds with iodine because of concern that it may induce scar tissue formation and increase healing time. However, concentrations of 1% iodine or less have not been shown to increase healing time and are not otherwise distinguishable from treatment with saline.
== Adverse effects == Ten to forty percent of people will experience nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, itching skin, increased body temperature, trembling and weakness. One to five percent of peoples may experience back and chest pain, dizziness, anemia, chills and sweating, metallic taste, tachycardia and respiratory distress. Contraindications for the use of carbetocin include inappropriate timing during labor and delivery (such as before parturition or to induce labor) or allergic reactions to carbetocin or other oxytocin homologues. Additionally, carbetocin should not be used if a person has high blood pressure or cardiovascular problems. Overdosage or repeated use of carbetocin, particularly if used during pregnancy, could cause hyper-excitation of the oxytocin receptors resulting in excessive and prolonged stimulation of uterine contractions, increasing risk of uterine rupture, placental abruption, fetal respiratory distress and postpartum hemorrhage.
==== Entrepreneurial ==== The entrepreneurial model looks at either the individual criminal or a smaller group of organized criminals, that capitalize off the more fluid 'group-association' of contemporary organized crime. This model conforms to social learning theory or differential association in that there are clear associations and interaction between criminals where knowledge may be shared, or values enforced, however, it is argued that rational choice is not represented in this. The choice to commit a certain act, or associate with other organized crime groups, may be seen as much more of an entrepreneurial decision – contributing to the continuation of a criminal enterprise, by maximizing those aspects that protect or support their own individual gain. In this context, the role of risk is also easily understandable, however it is debatable whether the underlying motivation should be seen as true entrepreneurship, or entrepreneurship as a product of some social disadvantage. The criminal organization, much in the same way as one would assess pleasure and pain, weighs such factors as legal, social and economic risk to determine potential profit and loss from certain criminal activities. This decision-making process rises from the entrepreneurial efforts of the group's members, their motivations and the environments in which they work.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
==== Inflammation and allergy ==== 12-HHT stimulates chemotactic responses in mouse bone marrow mast cells, which naturally express BLT2 receptors, as well as in Chinese hamster ovary cells made to express these receptors by transfection. These findings suggest that the 12-HHT/BLT2 receptor pathway may support the pro-inflammatory (i.e. chemotactic) actions of the LTB4/BLT1 pathway. On the other hand, the immortalized human skin cell line HaCaT expresses BLT2 receptors and responds to ultraviolet B (UVB) radiation by generating toxic reactive oxygen species which in turn cause the HaCaT cells to die by activating apoptotic pathways in a BLT2 receptor-dependent reaction. Topical treatment of mouse skin with a BLT2 receptor antagonist, LY255283, protects against UVB radiation-induced apoptosis and BLT2-overexpressing transgenic mice exhibited significantly more extensive skin apoptosis in response to UVB irradiation. Furthermore, 12-HHT inhibits HaCaT cells from synthesizing interleukin-6 (IL-6), a pro-inflammatory cytokine associated with cutaneous inflammation, in response to UVB radiation. These results suggest that the 12-HHT/BLT2 axis can act to suppress inflammation by promoting the orderly death of damaged cells and blocking IL-6 production. Opposition between the pro-inflammatory LTB4/BLT1 and anti-inflammatory actions of the 12-HHT/BLT2 axes occurs in another setting.
The Second Cold War, also called Cold War II, Cold War 2.0, or the New Cold War, is a term describing post-Cold-War era of political and military tensions between the United States and either Russia or China.
Alcohol powder, powdered alcohol or dry alcohol is a powder that becomes an alcoholic drink when water is added. It is made using micro-encapsulation of alcohol (specifically ethanol). In March 2015 four product labels for specific powdered alcohol products were approved by the United States Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau (TTB) which opened the doors for legal product sales. However, as of 4 January 2016, the product is not yet available for sale and legalization remains controversial due to public-health and other concerns. Researchers have expressed concern that, should the product go into production, increases in alcohol misuse, alcohol use disorder, and associated physical harm to its consumers could occur above what has been historically associated with liquid alcohol alone.
==== Surreptitious insulin use ==== When individuals take insulin without needing it, to purposefully induce hypoglycemia, this is referred to as surreptitious insulin use or factitious hypoglycemia. Some people may use insulin to induce weight loss, whereas for others this may be due to malingering or factitious disorder, which is a psychiatric disorder. Inappropriate usage of insulin is most common in people who have had exposure to diabetes management, such as healthcare workers, people who have relatives with diabetes, or people with diabetes themselves. The classic way to identify surreptitious insulin use is through blood work revealing high insulin levels with low C-peptide and proinsulin.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
The industry has experienced an increase in private equity investment and this has led to the consolidation of choices in the CDMO industry as many larger CDMOs have been formed. Many of those are active at aiming to be larger scale suppliers in the CDMO environment but the number of attractive acquisitions are limited. One could argue that this has had both positive and negative effects on the industry. Larger pharma companies like the idea of a larger CDMO while smaller pharma companies tend to see it more difficult to get the kind of service they expect.
In 2018, the same group published a more advanced version of this concept in which the molecular ring shuttles along a polymeric track to assemble an oligopeptide that can fold into an α-helix that can perform the enantioselective epoxidation of a chalcone derivative (in a way reminiscent to the ribosome assembling an enzyme). In another paper published in Science in March 2015, chemists at the University of Illinois report a platform that automates the synthesis of 14 classes of small molecules, with thousands of compatible building blocks. In 2017, David Leigh's group reported a molecular robot that could be programmed to construct any one of four different stereoisomers of a molecular product by using a nanomechanical robotic arm to move a molecular substrate between different reactive sites of an artificial molecular machine. An accompanying News and Views article, titled 'A molecular assembler', outlined the operation of the molecular robot as effectively a prototypical molecular assembler.
In September 2019, Collins released her debut perfume, Diva Pink. The unisex fragrance has a guaiac wood, saffron, rose and sandalwood scent, and is described as a "sensual fragrance with luxury oud and diva day undertones". Collins has also launched two lipsticks, "Candy" and "Diva" as well as her own range of false eyelashes. In March 2020, Collins announced her collaboration with fashion company InTheStyle, to release a collection of T-shirts, sweaters, hoodies and pyjamas featuring her viral quotes and memes. Following the success of the range, Collins collaborated with the company again in September, debuting her first plus-size collection with the brand which featured dresses, blouses and a selection of loungewear. During the COVID-19 pandemic, Collins released her own range of hand sanitizers and face masks. Following her weight loss, Collins began selling her old clothes on the online marketplace apps Depop and Vinted. In March 2021, Collins teamed up with The London Aesthetics Company to release GemmaCollagen, her own anti-ageing collagen supplement and skincare regime. Collins, who is regularly complimented on her skin, worked alongside the company's director Amrit Bhandal to create an ultimate skincare collection which included a cleanser, a toner, a day cream and a facial mask, as well as an eye serum and an amino acid night repair serum. The company also created a marine collagen supplement that included 90 capsules and was said to positively benefit the skin, hair, joints and muscles.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
It is a synthetic tetrapeptide. Its sequence was derived from research on peptide fractions of bovine pineal extract, and the intact AEDG sequence has not been demonstrated as an abundant free peptide in human tissue.
AEDG is the one-letter code for the four amino acids alanine, glutamate, aspartate and glycine in that order. The same molecule is written in three-letter form as Ala-Glu-Asp-Gly.
Identity is normally confirmed by mass spectrometry against the calculated mass of roughly 390.35 g/mol. Purity is then estimated by reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography with ultraviolet detection.
The usual approach is reversed-phase HPLC with ultraviolet detection, reported as a percentage of total peak area. Mass spectrometry is used alongside chromatography to confirm identity rather than purity alone.